97 publications

2020

• Wong, A. P. S., Wijffels, S. E., Riser, S. C., Pouliquen, S., Hosoda, S., Roemmich, D., ... Park, H. M. (2020). Argo data 1999-2019: Two million temperature-salinity profiles and subsurface velocity observations from a global array of profiling floats. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7(700). doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00700
• von Schuckmann, K., Cheng, L. J., Palmer, M. D., Hansen, J., Tassone, C., Aich, V., ... Wijffels, S. E. (2020). Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go?. Earth System Science Data, 12(3), 2013-2041. doi: 10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020
• Zilberman, N. V., Roemmich, D. H., & Gilson, J. (2020). Deep-ocean circulation in the Southwest Pacific Ocean interior: Estimates of the mean flow and variability using Deep Argo data. Geophysical Research Letters, 47(13), e2020GL088342. doi: 10.1029/2020GL088342

2019

• Roemmich, D., Sherman, J. T., Davis, R. E., Grindley, K., McClune, M., Parker, C. J., ... Gilson, J. (2019). Deep SOLO: A full-depth profiling float for the Argo Program. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 36(10), 1967-1981. doi: 10.1175/jtech-d-19-0066.1
• Meyssignac, B., Boyer, T., Zhao, Z. X., Hakuba, M. Z., Landerer, F. W., Stammer, D., ... Zilberman, N. (2019). Measuring global ocean heat content to estimate the earth energy imbalance. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6(432). doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00432
• Roemmich, D., Alford, M. H., Claustre, H., Johnson, K., King, B., Moum, J., ... Yasuda, I. (2019). On the future of Argo: A global, full-depth, multi-disciplinary array. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6(439). doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00439
• Johnson, G. C., Purkey, S. G., Zilberman, N. V., & Roemmich, D. (2019). Deep Argo quantifies bottom water warming rates in the southwest Pacific Basin. Geophysical Research Letters, 46(5), 2662-2669. doi: 10.1029/2018gl081685

2018

• Cazenave, A., Meyssignac, B., Ablain, M., Balmaseda, M., Bamber, J., Barletta, V., ... Grp, W. G. S. L. B. (2018). Global sea-level budget 1993-present. Earth System Science Data, 10(3), 1551-1590. doi: 10.5194/essd-10-1551-2018
• Zilberman, N. V., Roemmich, D. H., Gille, S. T., & Gilson, J. (2018). Estimating the velocity and transport of Western Boundary current systems: A case study of the East Australian Current near Brisbane. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 35(6), 1313-1329. doi: 10.1175/jtech-d-17-0153.1

2017

• Gasparin, F., & Roemmich, D. (2017). The seasonal march of the equatorial Pacific upper-ocean and its El Nino variability. Progress in Oceanography, 156, 1-16. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2017.05.010
• Jayne, S. R., Roemmich, D., Zilberman, N., Riser, S. C., Johnson, K. S., Johnson, G. C., & Piotrowicz, S. R. (2017). The Argo Program: Present and Future. Oceanography, 30(2), 18-28. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2017.213
• Holte, J., Talley, L. D., Gilson, J., & Roemmich, D. (2017). An Argo mixed layer climatology and database. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(11), 5618-5626. doi: 10.1002/2017gl073426
• Zilberman, N. V., Roemmich, D. H., & Gille, S. T. (2017). The East Pacific Rise current: Topographic enhancement of the interior flow in the South Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(1), 277-285. doi: 10.1002/2016gl069039
• National Academies of Sciences, E., & Medicine (2017). Sustaining ocean observations to understand future changes in earth’s climate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24919

2016

• Nagano, A., Kizu, S., Hanawa, K., & Roemmich, D. (2016). Heat transport variation due to change of North Pacific subtropical gyre interior flow during 1993-2012. Ocean Dynamics, 66(12), 1637-1649. doi: 10.1007/s10236-016-1007-2
• Yan, X. H., Boyer, T., Trenberth, K., Karl, T. R., Xie, S. P., Nieves, V., ... Roemmich, D. (2016). The global warming hiatus: Slowdown or redistribution?. Earths Future, 4(11), 472-482. doi: 10.1002/2016ef000417
• Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., Sutton, P., & Zilberman, N. (2016). Multidecadal change of the South Pacific gyre circulation. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 46(6), 1871-1883. doi: 10.1175/jpo-d-15-0237.1
• Gasparin, F., & Roemmich, D. (2016). The strong freshwater anomaly during the onset of the 2015/2016 El Nino. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(12), 6452-6460. doi: 10.1002/2016gl069542

2015

• Gasparin, F., Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., & Cornuelle, B. (2015). Assessment of the upper-ocean observing system in the equatorial Pacific: The role of Argo in resolving intraseasonal to interannual variability*. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 32(9), 1668-1688. doi: 10.1175/jtech-d-14-00218.1
• Roemmich, D., Church, J., Gilson, J., Monselesan, D., Sutton, P., & Wijffels, S. (2015). Unabated planetary warming and its ocean structure since 2006. Nature Climate Change, 5(3), 240-245. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2513

2014

• Bowen, M., Sutton, P., & Roemmich, D. (2014). Estimating mean dynamic topography in boundary currents and the use of Argo trajectories. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 119(12), 8422-8437. doi: 10.1002/2014jc010281
• Giglio, D., & Roemmich, D. (2014). Climatological monthly heat and freshwater flux estimates on a global scale from Argo. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 119(10), 6884-6899. doi: 10.1002/2014jc010083
• Zilberman, N. V., Roemmich, D. H., & Gille, S. T. (2014). Meridional volume transport in the South Pacific: Mean and SAM-related variability. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 119(4), 2658-2678. doi: 10.1002/2013jc009688

2013

• Giglio, D., Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (2013). Understanding the annual cycle in global steric height. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(16), 4349-4354. doi: 10.1002/grl.50774
• Zilberman, N. V., Roemmich, D. H., & Gille, S. T. (2013). The mean and the time variability of the shallow meridional overturning circulation in the tropical south pacific ocean. Journal of Climate, 26(12), 4069-4087. doi: 10.1175/jcli-d-12-00120.1

2012

• Giglio, D., Roemmich, D., & Gille, S. T. (2012). Wind-driven variability of the subtropical North Pacific Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 42(12), 2089-2100. doi: 10.1175/jpo-d-12-029.1
• Roemmich, D., Gould, W. J., & Gilson, J. (2012). 135 years of global ocean warming between the Challenger expedition and the Argo Programme. Nature Climate Change, 2(6), 425-428. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1461

2011

• Auad, G., Roemmich, D., & Gilson, J. (2011). The California Current System in relation to the Northeast Pacific Ocean circulation. Progress in Oceanography, 91(4), 576-592. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2011.09.004
• Zhang, X. B., Cornuelle, B., & Roemmich, D. (2011). Adjoint sensitivity of the Nino-3 surface temperature to wind forcing. Journal of Climate, 24(16), 4480-4493. doi: 10.1175/2011jcli3917.1
• Roemmich, D., & Gilson, J. (2011). The global ocean imprint of ENSO. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(L13606). doi: 10.1029/2011gl047992
• Sutton, P., & Roemmich, D. (2011). Decadal steric and sea surface height changes in the Southern Hemisphere. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(L08604). doi: 10.1029/2011gl046802

2010

• Douglass, E., Roemmich, D., & Stammer, D. (2010). Interannual variability in North Pacific heat and freshwater budgets. Deep-Sea Research Part Ii-Topical Studies in Oceanography, 57(13-14), 1127-1140. doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.01.001
• Wilson, W. S., Roemmich, D., & 22 co-authors (2010). Observing systems needed to address sea-level rise and variability. Understanding sea-level rise and variability (pp. 376-401). Chichester, West Sussex; Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Church, J., Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., & 12 co-authors (2010). Ocean temperature and salinity contributions to global and regional sea-level change. Understanding sea-level rise and variability (pp. 143-176). Chichester, West Sussex; Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

2009

• Douglass, E., Roemmich, D., & Stammer, D. (2009). Data Sensitivity of the ECCO State Estimate in a Regional Setting. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 26(11), 2420-2443. doi: 10.1175/2009jtecho641.1
• Le Traon, P. Y., Larnicol, G., Guinehut, S., Pouliquen, S., Bentamy, A., Roemmich, D., ... Breivik, L. A. (2009). Data assembly and processing for operational oceanography: 10 years of achievements. Oceanography, 22(3), 56-69. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2009.66
• Roemmich, D., & Argo Steering, T. (2009). Argo: the challenge of continuing 10 years of progress. Oceanography, 22(3), 46-55. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2009.65
• Roemmich, D., & Gilson, J. (2009). The 2004-2008 mean and annual cycle of temperature, salinity, and steric height in the global ocean from the Argo Program. Progress in Oceanography, 82(2), 81-100. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2009.03.004
• Roemmich, D., Johnson, G. C., Riser, S., Davis, R., Gilson, J., Owens, W. B., ... Ignaszewski, M. (2009). The Argo Program: Observing the global ocean with profiling floats. Oceanography, 22(2), 34-43. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2009.36
• Cai, W., Pan, A., Roemmich, D., Cowan, T., & Guo, X. (2009). Argo profiles a rare occurrence of three consecutive positive Indian Ocean Dipole events, 2006-2008. Geophysical Research Letters, 36(L08701). doi: 10.1029/2008gl037038

2008

• Uehara, H., Kizu, S., Hanawa, K., Yoshikawa, Y., & Roemmich, D. (2008). Estimation of heat and freshwater transports in the North Pacific using high-resolution expendable bathythermograph data. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 113(C2). doi: 10.1029/2007jc004165

2007

• Ueno, H., Oka, E., Suga, T., Onishi, H., & Roemmich, D. (2007). Formation and variation of temperature inversions in the eastern subarctic North Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters, 34(5). doi: 10.1029/2006gl028715
• Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., Davis, R., Sutton, P., Wijffels, S., & Riser, S. (2007). Decadal spinup of the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 37(2), 162-173. doi: 10.1175/jpo3004.1

2006

• Bowen, M. M., Sutton, P. J. H., & Roemmich, D. (2006). Wind-driven and steric fluctuations of sea surface height in the southwest Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(14). doi: 10.1029/2006gl026160
• Douglass, E., Roemmich, D., & Stammer, D. (2006). Interannual variability in northeast pacific circulation. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 111(C4). doi: 10.1029/2005jc003015
• Maes, C., Ando, K., Delcroix, T., Kessler, W. S., McPhaden, M. J., & Roemmich, D. (2006). Observed correlation of surface salinity, temperature and barrier layer at the eastern edge of the western Pacific warm pool. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(6). doi: 10.1029/2005gl024772

2005

• Sutton, P. J. H., Bowen, M., & Roemmich, D. (2005). Decadal temperature changes in the Tasman sea. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 39(6), 1321-1329.
• Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., Willis, J., Sutton, P., & Ridgway, K. (2005). Closing the time-varying mass and heat budgets for large ocean areas: The Tasman Box. Journal of Climate, 18(13), 2330-2343. doi: 10.1175/jcli3409.1

2004

• Willis, J. K., Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (2004). Interannual variability in upper ocean heat content, temperature, and thermosteric expansion on global scales. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 109(C12). doi: 10.1029/2003jc002260
• Roemmich, D., Riser, S., Davis, R., & Desaubies, Y. (2004). Autonomous profiling floats: Workhorse for broad-scale ocean observations. Marine Technology Society Journal, 38(2), 21-29.

2003

• Willis, J. K., Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (2003). Combining altimetric height with broadscale profile data to estimate steric height, heat storage, subsurface temperature, and sea-surface temperature variability. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 108(C9). doi: 10.1029/2002jc001755
• Roemmich, D., & Gould, W. J. (2003). The future of climate observations in the global ocean. Sea Technology, 44(8), 10-15.

2002

• Gilson, J., & Roemmich, D. (2002). Mean and temporal variability in Kuroshio geostrophic transport south of Taiwan (1993-2001). Journal of Oceanography, 58(1), 183-195. doi: 10.1023/a:1015841120927

2001

• Sutton, P. J. H., & Roemmich, D. (2001). Ocean temperature climate off north-east New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 35(3), 553-565.
• Nowlin, W. D., Briscoe, M., Smith, N., McPhaden, M. J., Roemmich, D., Chapman, P., & Grassle, J. F. (2001). Evolution of a sustained ocean observing system. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 82(7), 1369-1376. doi: 10.1175/1520-0477(2001)082<1369:eoasoo>2.3.co;2
• Roemmich, D., Gilson, J., Cornuelle, B., & Weller, R. (2001). Mean and time-varying meridional transport of heat at the tropical subtropical boundary of the North Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 106(C5), 8957-8970. doi: 10.1029/1999jc000150
• Bograd, S. J., Chereskin, T. K., & Roemmich, D. (2001). Transport of mass, heat, salt, and nutrients in the southern California Current System: Annual cycle and interannual variability. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 106(C5), 9255-9275. doi: 10.1029/1999jc000165
• Roemmich, D., & Gilson, J. (2001). Eddy transport of heat and thermocline waters in the North Pacific: A key to interannual/decadal climate variability?. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 31(3), 675-687. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<0675:etohat>2.0.co;2
• Stanton, B., Roemmich, D., & Kosro, M. (2001). A shallow zonal jet south of Fiji. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 31(10), 3127-3130. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<3127:aszjso>2.0.co;2

2000

• McCarthy, M. C., Talley, L. D., & Roemmich, D. (2000). Seasonal to interannual variability from expendable bathythermograph and TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter data in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 105(C8), 19535-19550. doi: 10.1029/2000jc900056
• Roemmich, D., & Owens, W. B. (2000). The Argo Project: Global ocean observations for understanding and prediction of climate variability. Oceanography, 13(2), 45-50. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2000.33

1999

• Sprintall, J., & Roemmich, D. (1999). Characterizing the structure of the surface layer in the Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 104(C10), 23297-23311. doi: 10.1029/1999jc900179
• Roemmich, D. H., & The ARGO Science Team (1999). Argo, the global array of profiling floats. OCEANOBS99 : International Conference on the Ocean Observing System for Climate, 18 - 22 October 1999, Saint-Raphael, France.

1998

• Gilson, J., Roemmich, D., Cornuelle, B., & Fu, L. L. (1998). Relationship of TOPEX/Poseidon altimetric height to steric height and circulation in the North Pacific. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 103(C12), 27947-27965. doi: 10.1029/98jc01680
• Chiswell, S. M., & Roemmich, D. (1998). The East Cape Current and two eddies: a mechanism for larval retention?. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 32(3), 385-397.
• Roemmich, D., & Sutton, P. (1998). The mean and variability of ocean circulation past northern New Zealand: Determining the representativeness of hydrographic climatologies. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 103(C6), 13041-13054. doi: 10.1029/98jc00583
• Morris, M. Y., Roemmich, D. H., Meyers, G., & Weisberg, R. (1998). Upper ocean heat and freshwater advection in the western Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 103(C6), 13023-13039. doi: 10.1029/98jc00195
• Hautala, S. L., & Roemmich, D. H. (1998). Subtropical mode water in the Northeast Pacific Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 103(C6), 13055-13066. doi: 10.1029/98jc01015

1997

• Rintoul, S. R., Donguy, J. R., & Roemmich, D. H. (1997). Seasonal evolution of upper ocean thermal structure between Tasmania and Antarctica. Deep-Sea Research Part I-Oceanographic Research Papers, 44(7), 1185-1202. doi: 10.1016/s0967-0637(96)00125-2

1996

• Morris, M., Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (1996). Observations of variability in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 26(11), 2359-2380. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026<2359:oovits>2.0.co;2
• Roemmich, D., Hautala, S., & Rudnick, D. (1996). Northward abyssal transport through the Samoan passage and adjacent regions. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 101(C6), 14039-14055. doi: 10.1029/96jc00797

1995

• Sprintall, J., Roemmich, D., Stanton, B., & Bailey, R. (1995). Regional climate variability and ocean heat transport in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 100(C8), 15865-15871. doi: 10.1029/95jc01664
• Roemmich, D., & McGowan, J. (1995). Climatic warming and the decline of zooplankton in the California Current. Science, 267(5202), 1324-1326. doi: 10.1126/science.267.5202.1324

1994

• Hautala, S. L., Roemmich, D. H., & Schmitz, W. J. (1994). Is the North Pacific in Sverdrup balance along 24°N?. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 99(C8), 16041-16052. doi: 10.1029/94jc01084
• Roemmich, D., Morris, M., Young, W. R., & Donguy, J. R. (1994). Fresh equatorial jets. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 24(3), 540-558. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1994)024<0540:fej>2.0.co;2

1993

• Cornuelle, B. D., Morris, M. Y., & Roemmich, D. H. (1993). An objective mapping method for estimating geostrophic velocity from hydrographic sections including the equator. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 98(C10), 18109-18118. doi: 10.1029/93jc01729

1992

• Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (1992). The subtropical mode waters of the South Pacific Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 22(10), 1178-1187. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1992)022<1178:tsmwot>2.0.co;2
• Roemmich, D. (1992). Ocean warming and sea level rise along the Southwest U.S. coast. Science, 257(5068), 373-375. doi: 10.1126/science.257.5068.373

1991

• Chereskin, T. K., & Roemmich, D. (1991). A comparison of measured and wind-derived Ekman transport at 11°N in the Atlantic-Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 21(6), 869-878. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1991)021<0869:acomaw>2.0.co;2
• Bryden, H. L., Roemmich, D. H., & Church, J. A. (1991). Ocean heat transport across 24°N in the Pacific. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers, 38(3), 297-324. doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(91)90070-v
• Roemmich, D., McCallister, T., & Swift, J. (1991). A transpacific hydrographic section along latitude 24°N: the distribution of properties in the subtropical gyre. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers, 38, S1-S20. doi: 10.1016/S0198-0149(12)80002-1

1990

• Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (1990). Observing the fluctuations of gyre-scale ocean circulation: a study of the Subtropical South Pacific. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 20(12), 1919-1934. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020<1919:otfogs>2.0.co;2
• Roemmich, D. H. (1990). Sea level and the thermal variability of the ocean. Sea level change (pp. 208-217). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

1989

• Roemmich, D. (1989). Mean transport of mass, heat, salt and nutrients in southern California coastal waters: implications for primary production and nutrient cycling. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers, 36(9), 1359-1378. doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(89)90088-5
• Roemmich, D., & McCallister, T. (1989). Large scale circulation of the North Pacific Ocean. Progress in Oceanography, 22(2), 171-204. doi: 10.1016/0079-6611(89)90005-0

1987

• Roemmich, D., & Cornuelle, B. (1987). Digitization and calibration of the expendable bathythermograph. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers, 34(2), 299-307. doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(87)90088-4
• Roemmich, D. H. (1987). Estimates of net transport, upwelling, and heat flux in the tropical oceans from inverse methods and related geostrophic models. Further progress in equatorial oceanography : a report of the U.S. Toga Workshop on the Dynamics of the Equatorial Oceans, Honolulu HI, August 11-15, 1986. Fort Lauderdale, Fla.: Nova University Press.

1985

• Wunsch, C., & Roemmich, D. (1985). Is the North Atlantic in Sverdrup balance. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 15(12), 1876-1880. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1985)015<1876:itnais>2.0.co;2
• Roemmich, D., & Wunsch, C. (1985). Two transatlantic sections: meridional circulation and heat flux in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean. Deep-Sea Research Part a-Oceanographic Research Papers, 32(6), 619-664. doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(85)90070-6

1984

• Roemmich, D., & Wunsch, C. (1984). Apparent changes in the climatic state of the deep North Atlantic Ocean. Nature, 307(5950), 447-450. doi: 10.1038/307447a0
• Roemmich, D. (1984). Indirect sensing of equatorial currents by means of island pressure measurements. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 14(9), 1458-1469. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1984)014<1458:isoecb>2.0.co;2

1983

• Roemmich, D. (1983). The balance of geostrophic and Ekman transports in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 13(8), 1534-1539. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<1534:tbogae>2.0.co;2
• Roemmich, D. (1983). Optimal estimation of hydrographic station data and derived fields. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 13(8), 1544-1549. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<1544:oeohsd>2.0.co;2

1982

• Roemmich, D., & Wunsch, C. (1982). On combining satellite altimetry with hydrographic data. Journal of Marine Research, 40, 605-619.
• Luyten, J. R., & Roemmich, D. H. (1982). Equatorial currents at semi-annual period in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 12(5), 406-413. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1982)012<0406:ecasap>2.0.co;2

1981

• Roemmich, D. (1981). Circulation of the Caribbean Sea: A well-resolved inverse problem. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans and Atmospheres, 86(NC9), 7993-8005. doi: 10.1029/JC086iC09p07993

1980

• Roemmich, D. (1980). Estimation of meridional heat flux in the North Atlantic by inverse methods. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 10(12), 1972-1983. doi: 10.1175/1520-0485(1980)010<1972:eomhfi>2.0.co;2